Afghanistan's History, by Kate Space

In order to fully understand the issues that are currently taking place in present-day Afghanistan, it is essential to realize the history that has shaped the country and its people. Afghanistan has endured several invasions and countless power struggles for hundreds of years. According to the BBC, one of the first invasions dates back to 328 BC when Alexander the Great invaded the land and introduced a Hellenistic state. In the centuries to follow, the Scythians, White Huns, and Turks also invaded the region. Arabs entered the territory of present-day Afghanistan and introduced Islam in AD 624—a very influential part of Afghanistan’s history in the years to come.

The U.S. Department of State reports that British forces invaded Afghanistan in 1838 and instigated the first Anglo-Afghan war. Afghanistan’s ruler, King Shah Shujah was assassinated in 1842. At the time, British troops were massacred during their retreat from Afghanistan’s capital, Kabul. In 1878, the struggle between Britain and Afghanistan continued, and the second Anglo-Afghan war continued until 1880. During this time, a treaty was signed that allowed Britain to gain control of Afghan foreign affairs. In 1919, Emir Amunallah Khan declared Afghanistan’s independence from British influence. Following the introduction of Zahir Shah as king in 1933, Afghanistan remained a monarchy for the next forty years.

In 1953, General Mohammed Daud became Prime Minister and turned to the Soviet Union for financial support as well as military assistance. Daud introduced many social reforms in Afghanistan, such as the practice of banning women from being seen in public. These reforms changed the way women were perceived in Afghan society and gave women rights they were never able to enjoy before. According to the U.S. Department of State, Mohammed Daud was forced to resign as Prime Minister in 1963. Constitutional monarchy was introduced the following year, leading to political opposition and intense power struggles. The U.S. Department of State indicates that in 1973, Mohammed Daud seized power and declared a republic in Afghanistan, forcing King Zahir Shah, out of power. In 1978, Mohammed Daud was overthrown and killed by his opposition, instigating an armed revolt that rippled throughout the country.

In 1979, the Soviet army invaded Afghanistan, introducing and supporting a communist government. Contrary to the Western views on communism, this system offered the people of Afghanistan—particularly the women—more rights, freedoms, and opportunities than they had ever been given previously. Backed by the Soviets, Babrak Karmal became the new ruler in 1980. Resistance intensified as various Mujahideen groups fought against Soviet forces. The Mujahideen are known as the “freedom fighters” of Islam. These groups believe that they are experiencing Jihad, or a struggle in the path of God. By fighting against the repressive government of Afghanistan, the Mujahideen believe they are fulfilling their religious duty to fight for their freedom.

As noted by the U.S. Department of State, Mujahideen groups came together in Pakistan in 1985, and formed an alliance to fight against the Soviet forces in Afghanistan. At this time, about half of the Afghan population was estimated to be displaced by the war, with many citizens fleeing to neighboring countries such as Pakistan and Iran to escape the hardship that rocked the country and its people. In 1986, the United States began supplying the Mujahideen with money and stinger missiles, and Babrak Karmal was replaced by Mohammad Najibullah as the leader of the Soviet-supported communist government. In 1988, the United States, Afghanistan, USSR, and Pakistan signed a peace treaty, leading the Soviet Union to pull their troops out of Afghanistan and by 1989, the Soviet troops were fully withdrawn. However, a civil war continued as Mujahideen groups pushed to overthrow Mohammad Najibullah and his communist regime, which was overpowered by the Mujahideen in 1992.

In 1996, the Taliban—an Islamist militant and political cult—seized control of Kabul and introduced a newer, harder version of Islam, banning women from the workplace and instilling harsh Islamic punishments, which included amputations and stoning people to death. By 1997, the Taliban was recognized as legitimate rulers by Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, as noted by the Department of State. At this time, the Taliban was gaining power and was estimated to have control of about two-thirds of Afghanistan.

In 1998, the United States launched missile strikes at suspected bases of Osama bin Laden, the founder of the Islamist militant group Al Qaeda, who was accused of bombing U.S. embassies in Africa. In 1999, the U.N. established an air embargo in an attempt to force Afghanistan to hand over Osama bin Laden for trial. In 2001, Ahmad Shah Masood, the leader of the main opposition to the Taliban, was assassinated, adding fuel to the conflict and sparking a series of further attacks between Afghanistan and the United States in the years to come.



Works Cited
“Afghanistan Background Notes.” U.S. Department of State, 2011. Web. 28 Nov 2011.


“Afghanistan Profile.” News: South Asia. BBC, 2011. Web. 28 Nov 2011.

Meaningful Messages in "Men in the Sun," by Cassandra Roberts

“Men in the Sun” has some predominant themes, which Kanafani uses to transmit a number of moral messages to the reader. One theme is community. Abu Qais, Assad, and Marwan unify, learning to trust each other and work together in order to accomplish their dangerous journey. Although they are of different generations, they have a common goal: to get to Kuwait to earn some money to support themselves and/or their family. We learn from this that it is better to work as a team in the same direction instead of against each other in order to make decisions, and to support each other during harsh, challenging times.

Another important theme is opportunity. The characters seek opportunities in Kuwait, which is the land of promise and hope. Iraq is unstable and tense, and it is very difficult to earn money for food. The desperate need for a new opportunity is what leads the men to take drastic measures and decide to be smuggled into Kuwait. Kanafani tries to teach us that sometimes life presents us with tempting opportunities, but some can be too extreme.

A further theme is greed. All Abul Khaizuran wants is money as he feels it is the only way for him to be content in life because he has gone through tough, traumatic experiences. He knows he will not get married, so he tries to find fulfillment and happiness in money instead of in love. He cannot seem to make enough money lawfully, so he decides to smuggle refugees into Kuwait. This greed for wealth leads to the tragic death of three innocent men. Abul even says, “Money comes first, and then morals” in one point of the novella.

The last major theme is ‘the road.’ It represents the journey that will allegedly lead the men to their dreams. They are desperate to transform their lives and the road offers them this chance. The road is broad and traveled, yet at times narrow and risky, and it presents adventure, a new experience and prospect. The road is something that we confront every day; we make decisions and choose certain paths, which may lead us to accomplishing a dream, or may be the wrong one and have negative consequences.

The Causes of the Arab Spring, by Julia Edwards

The causes leading up to the Arab Spring are multiple but not particularly unusual. Police brutality, unreasonable laws, lack of freedom, and censorship are all similar problems that occurred in Naguib Mahfouz's novel Palace Walk. In both cases, the citizens of Egypt partook in protests and demonstrations to voice their complaints. The different between the situation in Palace Walk and the one of Arab Spring is that the citizens in Palace Walk protested against the British occupation while the demonstrations of Arab Spring protested the Egyptian government.

Police brutality was a major issue that the citizens of Egypt protested during Arab Spring. The police used various forms of torture, including harassment and tear gas, to get information or confessions out of people. During the demonstrations of Arab Spring, the police brutality continued in an attempt to keep the citizens “under control” (“Arab Spring”). This type of police brutality was exactly what happened in Palace Walk. When Fahmy and his fellow students protested in the streets, British police began shooting at the protesters no matter if the protesters were violent or not. While there were not clear examples of police torturing citizens for information in Palace Walk, there were forms of torture for no apparent reason. For example, Ahmad was forced by the British police to fill in hole with dirt all night. In Palace Walk and during the Arab Spring, Egyptians experienced police brutality because of the oppression of the citizens by the government in power.

Another complaint of the citizens during the Arab Spring was Emergency Law. Emergency Law was first instated in 1958. Under this law the police had a lot power as was evident in their forms of torture. Also, the citizens had fewer rights and more censorship. The state and the police could arrest people for minor reasons and without trial (“Arab Spring”). Although Emergency Law was not in effect during Palace Walk, many of the same aspects of the law were. When Yasin was desirous and wished to go to see Zanuba, he refrained for fear of being caught out too late by the police. Similarly when he was walking in the street and a British police officer motioned to him, Yasin panicked, thinking that he was going to be taken away. Yasin’s fear shows how unreasonable laws similar to those of Emergency law oppressed the Egyptian people.

Before and during Arab Spring, the Egyptian government had a lot of control over the media in Egypt. The Egyptian government owns stock in three of the largest Arab newspapers, which gives it a lot of influence in what is published. The government also controls the licensing and the distribution of all papers. The government is allowed to censor anything that is considered a threat to the country or the people. Writers who did not comply with accepted material were subject to home-raids, torture, or even imprisonment (“Arab Spring”). This same censorship can be found in Palace Walk. The handbills that Fahmy and other students were handing out were illegal, and if the police found them, the students would be arrested. In Palace Walk, the British tried to censor what was written to limit knowledge of the repression. The same situation happened during the demonstrations of Arab Spring but under the oppressive Egyptian government.


Works Cited
“Arab Spring” Sourcewatch. Sourcewatch.org. Web 19 Oct. 2011
Mahfouz, Naguib. Palace Walk. Eds. William Maynard Hutchins et al. New York: Doubleday, 1956.

Arab Regions, by Robert Peck

The regions of the Arab World may be close together on the landscape but several of the countries could not be more different. Between the languages spoken, the literacy rate, the problems within the confines of the borders down to the meaning of their flags, there is a reason why these countries have fought for independence throughout the course of history. The majority of the countries in the Middle East have a past history filled with bloodshed and struggle for independence and most of these countries escaped the rule of a more powerful overseeing country in an attempt to leave their own mark on the world. The purpose of this entry is to layout basic facts about a few of the major countries of the Arab World.

The country of Jordan utilizes a political monarchy with a parliamentary system, but as of December of 2011, there has been much unrest in Jordan as there has been with the rest of the Middle East. However, in response to the demonstrations King Abdallah replaced his prime minister and formed two commissions in order to reform the political parties and the electoral process of Jordan. The religion in the country is officially recognized as Sunni Muslim with a small Christian minority presence as well. The literacy rate of Jordan is strikingly high compared to other countries where peoples over the age of 15 who can read and write are at about 90% of all those included with a 95% literacy rate in men and just an 84% rate in women. The flag of Jordan is made up of three stripes colored black, white and green with a 7 pointed white star in the middle. The three colors represent the first three caliphates of the history of Jordan, the original three that ruled over the land in the early stages of the country’s existence.

The land of Egypt has become perhaps the most notable country in the Arab World due to the unrest throughout 2011, and with the resignation of President Mubarak, the defense minister Muhammad Hussein Tantawi assumed control of the government as a member of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. Much like the Jordanian flag, Egypt’s flag contains stripes of black and white but rather than representing the original Muslim caliphates, the black and white of Egypt’s flag represent oppression represented by black and a bright future with the white. Sitting on top of the black and white stripes is a red stripe representing the bloody struggle to attain independence.

The Sudan is one of the poorer countries of the Arab World. It is a country dominated by Sunni Muslims with a Christian minority. With only a 61% literacy rate among the population and just a 50% literacy rate among women, the Sudan ranks among the lowest of Arab World nations. In fact, according the CIA World Fact book: “Sudanese women and girls are subjected to domestic servitude in Middle Eastern countries (…) and to forced sex trafficking in European countries.” The children are transported to Saudi Arabia through Yemen where they are forced to beg and vend in the streets.

Many of the flags of Arab Nations have some type of ties to conflict or to the Muslim religion. As in the green flag of the birthplace of the Muslim religion, Saudi Arabia, the green in the Kuwait flag represents fertile land while the red, white and black of the Kuwaiti flag represent blood on their swords, purity and defeat of the enemy, respectively, which is similar to the Egyptian flag but very different at the same time. The small nuances in just the flags of these very similar nations speak for the independence and the passion of that independence that these countries feel and they pride they take in their people.

Works Cited
"CIA - The World Factbook." Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. 22 Dec. 2012. Web. 2 Dec. 2012. .

Arabic Dialects, by Alison Priebe

The Arabic language is spread over a large area in the Middle East and Africa; because of this, the language comprises many different dialects in each country and within each country. E. T. Rogers writes in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, “The language is so rich in itself, that it can well afford to be broken up and to supply the foundation of several dialects, each correct in itself” (365). These dialects do not simply differ between countries; there are also many sub-dialects within dialects, which differ because of factors such as the region, setting (city, rural, or Bedouin), economic class, and social class.

Although these dialects are spoken, they are not written. The only way to tell between the regional forms of Arabic in writing is the lexicon. Many Arabic words are used specifically in one dialect and not another. E.T. Rogers writes that the word for what in Egyptian is ay, in Northern Syrian is aish, and in Palestinian is shû (369). Since Arabic has so many dialects, it can be difficult for someone learning Arabic and who has not been around the Arabic language to understand the various dialects. Word differences are not the only major difference.

The sounds in Arabic are also said differently in many dialects. One major dialectal difference that E.T. Rogers points out is the pronunciation of ; the Egyptians pronounce it as a hard g, as in gauge, the Syrians pronounce it as a softer g, as in George, some people in the Damascus area pronounce it as a z, and some people in the Lebanon area pronounce it like the French g in the name Gigi. With all the differences in simply one Arabic letter, it is necessary for Arabic speakers to hear speakers from other areas in their youth to be able to understand the various dialects. Rogers states, “Words in common use in Morocco which are unintelligible to the uneducated in Syria” (365). The same is possible for the differing of sounds in Arabic Dialects.

Since there are so many lexical and phonetic differences in Arabic dialects, there must also be a dialect that people everywhere are able to understand. A generalized and standard dialect is sweeping the Arab world so that people educated in this dialect can all understand each other. In The Modern Language Journal, T.B. Irving writes, “This general version of Standard Arabic or Fushà is understood and used by educated Arabs from Morocco to 'Uman, and its use is increasing as the Arabs regain control of their educational, information and broadcasting systems” (313). The Arabic language is vast, old, complex, and teeming with many dialects, each correct on their own and each deserving to be heard by all.

Plight of the Palestinians, Part III, by Ashley Singer

Many Palestinians fled the country, and those who stayed were under Israeli occupation. Those who fled went to Jordan, the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Syria, and other Arab countries. However, many of the Palestinians were not welcomed into their brother countries and became refugees. By the end of 2010, the number of Palestinian refugees on United Nations Relief and Works Agency rolls raised to nearly five million, several times the number that left Palestine in 1948.

In just the past three years, the number grew by eight percent. Today, forty-two percent of the refugees live in the territories; if you ask those living in Jordan, eighty percent of the Palestinians currently live in “Palestine” (Bard). UNRWA stands for United Nations Relief and Works Agency. They provide assistance for nearly 5 million registered Palestine refugees. The largest concentration of Palestine refugees is in Jordan, representing more than 40% of those refugees registered with UNRWA (Palestinian Refugees).

To this day there remains a large number of refugees, and there is still great tension between the Arabs and the Jews and the fight over Israel. There is the inevitably destabilizing effect of trying to maintain an ethnically preferential state, particularly when it is largely of foreign origin (Qumsiyeh). Another issue is that Palestinians have little control of their own lives. Many of the refugees living in the refugee camps are subject to torture and abuse by the Israeli’s who run the camps.

The book Wild Thorns, by Sahar Khalifeh, is based on the Six-Day war and the life of the Palestinians in 1967. The main character in the story, Usama, returns to his homeland in the West Bank from Amman. Usama is a Palestinian and upon returning home he immediately can see the change that occurred within his country, his own people, and is angered by being under Israeli occupation. He doesn’t understand why his friends and family are not fighting for their country and instead dealing with the new living conditions. His Palestinian friends do not like doing so anymore than Usama, but it is all they can do to feed their families. The book also depicts to the reader how badly the Israelis treat the Arabs living in their own country.


Works Cited
Bard, Mitchell. “The Palestinian Refugees.” Jewish Virtual Library-Homepage. Web.
10 Nov. 2011. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/refugees.html.

“Key Historical Events.” Plight of the Palestinians. World Wide Web Domination, 2010.
Web. 27 Nov. 2011. http://palestinian-plight.com/history.html.

“Palestinian Refugees Issue since 1948.” Palestinehistory.com. Web. 27 Nov. 2011.
http://www.palestinehistory.com/pdf/issues/refugees.pdf.

Qumsiyeh, Mazin. “Palestinian Refugees Right to Return and Repatriation.” If
Americans Knew—What Every American Needs to Know about Israel.
Web. 10 Nov. 2011. http://www.ifamericansknew.org/history/ref-qumsiyeh.html.

“The Truth about the Palestinian People.” Target of Opportunity-Eliminating the
Planet of Liberals One at a Time. Web. 10 Nov. 2011.
http://www.targetofopportunity.com/palestinian _truth.html.

United States Holocaust Museum. “The Holocaust.” Holocaust Encyclopedia.
27 Nov. 2011. http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/?ModuleId=10005143.

Plight of the Palestinian People: Part I, by Alice Scott

The Holocaust was one reason behind the plight of the Palestinian people. The Holocaust began in 1933 when Hitler was the dictator of Germany. He had the belief that Germans were “superior” to the Jews and many others. However, Hitler didn’t realize that there were over nine million Jewish people in Europe. “By 1945, the Germans and their collaborators killed nearly two out of every three European Jews as part of the Final Solution.” The Holocaust officially ended in 1957, when the last camp was closed. During the Holocaust, Hitler’s “Final Solution” pushed the Jewish people to flee to different parts of the world in order to keep their lives. One place they fled was to Palestine. In 1947, tensions were already growing between the Jews and Arabs (Palestine History).

The Jewish people owned six percent of the land in Palestine (United States HMM). The Palestinian people didn’t agree with the number of Jewish people increasing in their territory which led to an uprising. The British Government announces its plans to withdraw from Palestine on the 15th of May, 1948 (Palestine History). In 1947 Great Britain, which originally was in charge of Palestine, “handed the problem over to the United Nations for resolution” (“Key Historical Events”).

The official plight began in 1948. In order to make things easier, the United Nation Resolution 181 partitioned the territory from the British Mandate for Palestine into two states. However, the Arab countries were very stubborn and objected it and fought a war against the idea of the two states. The United Nations partition resolution was divided between Israel and Jordan. Unfortunately, the Palestinian Arabs were rejected by other Arab countries, with the exception of the small percentage that ended up in the refugee camps in Jordan. Those refugees are still there, till this day (“Truth about Palestinian People”).

A contradiction was also made throughout all of this chaos. In 1948 the Arab refugees were encouraged, by the Arab leaders, to leave Israel and to purge the land of Jews. Sixty-eight percent left without seeing a single Israeli soldier. However, Israel’s Proclamation of Independence, issued May 14, 1948, also invited the Palestinians to remain in their homes and become equal citizens in the new state (Bard).

In 1949 Israel offered to allow families, which were separated during the war, to return. They agreed to release refugee accounts that had been frozen and repatriate 100,000 refugees. Israel had offered to pay compensation for abandoned lands. The Arabs firmly rejected all the Israeli compromises (Bard). In 1967, Israel took over the last of the Palestinian territory. The last lands, that were Palestine territory, were Jordan, Egypt, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and three others. Because of Israel’s decision to take the remaining territory, another migration of half a million Palestinians took place. The United Nations Security Council then spoke to Israel about withdrawing from the territories it had taken over. On October 6, 1973, a three week war began between Syria, Egypt, and Israel to get back the land that Israel had taken (“Key Historical Events”).


Works Cited
Bard, Mitchell. "The Palestinian Refugees." Jewish Virtual Library- Homepage. Web. 10 Nov. 2011. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/refugees.html.

"Key Historical Events." Plight of the Palestinians. World Wide Web Domination, 2010. Web. 27 Nov 2011.

"The Truth about the Palestinian People." Target of Opportunity – Eliminating the Planet of Liberals One at a Time. Web. 10 Nov. 2011. http://www.targetofopportunity.com/palestinian_truth.htm.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “The Holocaust.” Holocaust Encyclopedia.http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/?ModuleId=10005143. Accessed on 27 November 2011

Shashaa, Esam, ed. “Palestine History.” Web. 15 Dec. 2011.

The Arabic Language, by Alyssa Principato

The Arabic language is a rather unique one. Those who speak Arabic are mostly born into the language or learn it from someone they are close with who speaks Arabic fluently (Arabic Language 1). The Arabic language is ranked sixth in the world’s top spoken languages (Arabic Language 1). There are an estimated two hundred and twenty two million native speakers of this language (Omiglot 1). This could be surprising to most individuals in the United States because it is not heard very often in everyday conversations as Spanish is. The Arabic language is also the language of the holy book of Islam, which is named the Qur’an (Arabic Language 1). Arabic is also a language which is written in a symbol-like form with the Hebrew, Syriac, and Latin scripts (Omniglot 1). When one looks at the Arabic alphabet, it is very fascinating to see how the symbols are formed and spoken.

The Arabic language is spoken in many countries, such as Afghanistan, Chad, Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait, Lebanon, and several others (Omiglot 1). Although Arabic is perceived as a difficult language to learn, it is actually less complicated than Latin and easier to speak than German (Arabic Language 1). However, normally those who speak Arabic are native to the language rather than self taught (Arabic Language 1). There are also only twenty-eight letters in the Arabic alphabet and most letters change their form depending on placement in the particular sentence being spoken (Omniglot 1).The root system of Arabic, unlike the English language, consists of words that are constructed from three-letter "roots," which convey a basic idea (Arabic Language 1).

Another interesting concept about the Arabic language is that there are only three vowels in the entire Arabic alphabet (Arabic Language 1). When speaking Arabic, the words “is” and “are” are not used in the present tense at all (Arabic Language 1). Lastly, the basic Arabic sentence order is verb, subject, and then the object being spoken about (Arabic Language 1). Each Arabic country or region has its own dialect, which can make it very difficult for one to speak Arabic in a different country (Omniglot 1). Based on these facts about the way Arabic is spoken, it is vastly different from the English language in many different ways.

Works Cited
Arabic Language. Introduction, 2009. Web. 27 November 2011.
Omniglot Online Encyclopedia of Writing Systems and Languages. Arabic, 1998-2011. Web. 27 November 2011.

Up-to-date Status of North and South Sudan, by Courtney Jackson

The relations between North and South Sudan have evolved from a civil divide to an economic crisis – especially for South Sudan. Prior extortion and embargo placed on South Sudan by North Sudan still proves disparaging for the South’s overall stability. Connections have been completely severed and even peace markets for the sale of oil have been closed along the country’s new border. South Sudan is holding on to all it has – oil. Oil, the most prized natural resource of the Middle East, is the only reason North and South Sudan still even communicate. North Sudan has even taken it to the extent of bombing South Sudan as reported on November 11, 2011 (Reeves). The militarized regime of Khartoum is trying to make new borders between North and South Sudan and relinquish possession of oil fields that South Sudan possesses.

Since the initial embargo when North Sudan monopolized the airlines, cut off food and fuel supply, froze central bank accounts and completely isolated South Sudan economically and politically, the area now known as South Sudan has suffered desolate conditions in addition to the newly reported bombings. The United States has tried to relieve the conditions and aid South Sudan by raising the capacity of the South Sudanese army to provide defense for their newborn country (Collins). Crime and mortality rates are high in South Sudan, so the United States is providing increased aid to ease trade sanctions and to stop the recurring violence in South Sudan.

In the novel Season of Migration to the North by Tayeb Salih, the North asserts that the South will never be in good terms with the North if they keep embracing the West – in reality this would mean their association with the United States. In an article found in the Sudan Tribune called “North-South Sudan economic war will not take prisoners” by John A. Akec, the claim about the west is asserted by Nafi Ali Nafi as he states that the South Sudan government must “distant itself from the West if they dream of building any cooperative relations with the North;” with that said, the ultimate strain of relations between North and South Sudan is for economic reasons – reasons that hinder South Sudan more than North Sudan can even imagine. South Sudan is struggling to maintain their independence and thrive without the supplementary political and economical support of North Sudan. All South Sudan has is a new beginning and lots of oil; they hit rock bottom and can go nowhere but up from here.

Works Cited
Akec, John A. "North-South Sudan Economic War Will Not Take Prisoners." Sudan Tribune. Sudan Tribune, 30 July 2011. Web. 28 Oct. 2011. .

Collins, Toby. "US Eases North Sudan Trade Regulations." Sudan Tribune. Sudan Tribune, 17 Oct. 2011. Web. 28 Oct. 2011. .

Reeves, Eric. "Full-scale War Looms as Khartoum Bombs Civilians in South Sudan." Sudan Tribune. Sudan Tribune, 12 Nov. 2011. Web. 12 Nov. 2011. .

The Sudan Conflict, by Krystel Hillbish

Since 1965, the Sudanese people struggled with identifying their nationality. The rift between the northern area of Sudan and the southern area of Sudan caused civil unrest and war within the country. These years of civil unrest resulted from the major differences between the North and South that still affect the country today. While the North of Sudan identifies itself with the Arab culture and religion, Islam, the South adopts either tribal culture or adopts the religion of Christianity.

Discussing the North/South religious dispute in Sudan, Lynsey Addario of the New York Times writes, “The north is mostly Muslim and historically has identified with the Arab world, while many southerners are Christian and more connected to Kenya, Uganda, and other sub-Saharan nations.” The religious disputes and cultural differences between the two worlds in Sudan worsen the nation’s tensions and influences. In addition, other countries are supporting either the North or South, based on which values they prefer. For example, because the West has similar values to South Sudan, Western nations support Southern cessation from the North. In 2005, two major Sudanese political parties signed a treaty that ended most of the killing in the South and settled some major disputes (Addario). This treaty was influenced by the United States under the Bush administration. In addition, the reign of Omar al-Bashir caused a strain between Western nations and Northern Sudan because of al-Bashir’s association with radical Islamists, like Osama Bin-Laden (Addario). Regardless of Northern Sudan’s ties, the Southern part of Sudan was able to succeed from the North in July of 2011.

This separation from the North, however, did not end all disputes plaguing the once-unified nation because the two countries are now fighting over oil control. Because of the high value of oil to Sudan’s economy, the North is fearful of allowing the South to secede, which is what the majority of the Southern population desires (Addario).

Works Cited
Addario, Lynsey. “Sudan.” New York Times. 14 July 2011. Web. 19 October 2011.

Current Status of North and South Sudan, by Krista Gromelski

In order to understand what is going on in Sudan (or Africa) today, it is important to understand its roots—its history. According to International Crisis Group, Africa’s largest country, Sudan is divided along lines of religion (70 percent Muslim, 25 per cent animist, 5 per cent Christian), ethnicity (African, Arab origin), tribe, and economic activity (nomadic sedentary). Since its independence in 1956, the country has been characterized by ongoing centre—periphery (border) tensions. As a result, Sudan has been in a state of near constant war, the deadliest conflicts being those between North and South 1956-1972 and 1983-2005, and, more recently the conflict in Darfur.

It has been a continuous and upheaving battle to declare independence from one another for over 50 some years. And one such problem that caused such turmoil was that an inefficient and corrupt government also plagued the fledging nation. This undermined even the ruler’s good faith efforts to establish school in rural areas; a problem that the author Tayeb Salih wrote about in Season of Migration to the North.

The long awaited day came when it was announced to the world that Sudan was officially going to be split into two countries. As the International Crisis Group wrote, “On July 9, 2011, Africa’s largest country split in two, formalising the long-awaited independence of South Sudan following decades of war and acrimony between North and South. While the January 2011 referendum on Southern self-determination passed relatively peacefully, under close internation scrutiny, tensions mounted in months leading up to the South’s independence.” As one can see, tensions had been mounting more and more, until the official word was given that Sudan was split into North and South Sudan.

With negotiations being debated back in early January of 2011, the people of South Sudan were waiting patiently, until they suddenly heard great news. As Time reported, “The people of Sudan’s southern capital, Juba, broke out in exuberant song and dance on Sunday, Jan. 30, as the inevitable became official: in July, Sudan will split into two new nations.”

North and South Sudan presently have been in negotiations to settle many disputes, especially the distribution of oil. One such example of tension is quite apparent in Salih’s text Season of Migration to the North, where Mahjoub and unnamed narrator are having a bit of an argument, and Mahjoub complains, yelling:

Everything’s in Khartoum. The whole of the country’s budget is spent in Khartoum. One single hospital in Merawi, and it takes us three days to get there. The women die in child-birth—there’s not a single qualified midwife in this place. (118)

As a result, the split has indeed caused a great deal of tension between neighbors, put a damper on development of the economy, and the political power and social aspects have been going back and forth. Both “states” will certainly have a long road ahead of them...for years to come.

Works Cited
"Africa: Sudan." Central Intelligence Agency. n.d. Web. 31 Oct. 2011.
"Sudan." New York Times. New York Times, 11 Nov. 2011. Web. 11 Nov. 2011

"Sudan after the South's Independence." International Crisis Group. 2011. Web.
10 Nov. 2011

Boswell, Alan. "Sudan's Split: As South Cheers, the North Protests." TIME World. Time, 31 Jan. 2011. Web. 10 Nov. 2011.

Collins, Toby. "North and South Sudan: two new countries, two new currencies."
Sudan Tribune. 12 July 2011. Web. 10 Nov. 2011.

Salih, Tayeb. Season of Migration to the North.
Boulder: Three Continents Press, Inc., 1980. Print

The Holy Qur'an, by Elizabeth Gehringer

The Islamic faith is a monotheistic religion. In Arabic, the word “Allah” means God, which is derived from the Holy Qur’an. The Holy Qur’an is the final revelation of Allah according to Muslims and is His word related to the prophet Muhammad. Muhammad comes from a long lineage on Gods, which is described in the Holy Qur’an. Muslim’s refer to the Holy Qur’an for guidance in their faith. The Holy Qur’an consists of 114 chapters, 360 parts, 6,616 verses, 77,943 words and 338,606 letters (Smith 1). It is a rather extensive book, yet many Muslims have much of the Holy Qur’an memorized. The Qur’an is written and spoken in Arabic which is taught through a process called the Haddith. It is believed by some Muslims that the Holy Qur’an should be read every night, although it is also stated in the Holy Qur’an that the amount read is decided by the reader. Imam Ja'far as-Sadiq has said that the minimum daily reading of the Qur'an should be fifty verses or one-fourth of the part, which is approximately five minutes reading depending on the reader.

One unique concept that the Holy Qur’an expresses is the “Jinn”. Jinn are used to describe good or evil spirits. The Jinn were created to worship Allah; however, in a later verse, the Holy Qur’an relays they were created for Hell. It is said in the Holy Qur’an the Jinn worked for King Solomon, bringing him whatever he desired. Many of our novels in class have represented the Jinn, including Palace Walk and Pillars of Salt. In Palace Walk, Amina recites verses of the Holy Qur’an to ward away the Jinn, or the spirits of Hell. Maha, in Pillars of Salt, also refers to the Jinn as evil spirits.

Another unique fact about the Holy Qur’an is that it is said to be protected by Allah himself. No man can corrupt or harm the Holy Qur’an. Surprisingly, the Holy Qur’an has remained unaltered for approximately 1,400 years (Smith 1). In each of the novels read thus far, the Islamic faith has been the common ground. The characters in the novels read in class have an immense belief and faith in the Islamic religion. They have such strong beliefs because of the value stated in the Holy Quran. Adel S. M. Reza, and S. M. Hosseini Maasoum, authors of "The Quran As Intertext: A Critical Relection," state, “What we can confess is that it has come from God and the carrier of this holy message is without any dispute, Mohammad, peace be upon him” (48). True Islamists believe the Holy Qur’an to have come from Allah Himself. Because of the spiritual connection Muslims have with the Holy Qur’an, perhaps this is why Muslims possess such piety and prove to be true to their Islamic faith.

Anwar al-Sadat and the October War, by Halie Williams

Anwar al-Sadat took over presidency from Gamel Abdel Nasser in 1970. Sadat had been Nasser’s vice president previously, and in many ways was a vastly different individual. He was the quieter of the two, with a political agenda aimed more towards capitalism than socialism. The man had a plan for his presidency: he aimed to industrialize Egypt and increase manufacturing and commercialization. Industry and agriculture increased with the completion of the Aswan High Dam. His goal was to create a market economy in Egypt, and he wanted to do so through his “open-door” policy, or Infitah, which allowed western foreign investors to enter the country and set up businesses. He was also a man who presented conflicting faces to the public. While wanting to emulate the financial success that was America’s market and industry, he maintained ties to extremist Islam groups and signed a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union. These actions put a lot of strain on Egypt’s relations with the United States. He was also very paranoid of those who opposed him, and had many intellectuals tried and arrested.

In an effort to raise the spirits of the Egyptian people, who were still hurting from the loss of the Sinai Peninsula during the Six-Day War, Sadat pushed Egyptian forces forward in what was called the Yom Kippur War, or October War in October 1973. Although Israeli forces eventually won out the battle, the Egyptians and Syrians managed to cross the Suez Canal and impose their presence in Israel. Negotiations allowed them to reclaim the peninsula, and in 1978, Sadat traveled to Jerusalem and to begin peace talks with Israel, and in the following year the treaty, called the Camp David Accords, was signed in Washington, D.C. Egypt would be the first Arab nation to fully recognize Israel as a nation, and Sadat would be condemned for his actions by other Arabic nations. Because of this, Egypt was ousted from the Arab League.

Because of his friendship with the Shah of Iran, Sadat became increasingly paranoid of dissenters after the Iran revolution overthrew the Shah in 1979. Many intellectuals, unrightfully accused of anti-government conspiracies, were arrested in the following years and held in prison. There was also a backpedaling in feminism during the Sadat era, in which the act of veiling for women (or hijab) became more common; however it was also used as a form of protest against Sadat’s love of western capital. His love of Western capital also got him in trouble with many of the Muslim extremists that he had tried so hard to please in his early years of office. He neglected his ties with some and arrested others in fear of a revolt. In October of 1981, his fears proved correct as he was assassinated during a military parade in Cairo by two jihad members. The arrested intellectuals were released on grounds of no evidence, and Sadat’s vice president Hosni Mubarak took office, where he ruled until the Arab Spring revolutions of 2011.

The love-hate attitude towards Westerners is evocative of Naguib Mahfouz’s Palace Walk, where only a certain percentage of the population approved of their colonial past and others longed for revolution. Fahmy was a prime example of the type of person that Sadat feared most. The violent changes in power were something that Egypt is no stranger to, in the past and in the present day.



Works Cited

“20th Century Cairo.” University of Texas. Web. 15 Oct. 2011.
< http://www.laits.utexas.edu/cairo/history/modern/modern.html>

BBC News UK. “Egypt Profile – Timeline.” BBC News. Web. 15 Oct. 2011.
< http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13315719>

Braziel, Jana Evans. “Background in 20th Century Egyptian History Since 1952 Revolution.” University of Massachusetts. Web. 15 Oct. 2011.
< http://www.umass.edu/complit/aclanet/EGYPT.html>

The 2011 Egytian Revolution, by Thomas DiPietro

For those unaware, Egypt has experienced a revolution during the current calendar year of 2011. The revolution is still ongoing since the desires of the populace have not truly been yet at the current time, but the general population has still been quite successful in pushing for change in their nation. The main goal for the Egyptian people rebelling against their government was to overthrow the head of the country, Hosni Mubarak. In recent years, there has been much opposition towards Hosni’s position as President. He has been President of the country for 30 years, the longest term that any Egyptian president has ever served. The Egyptian people wanted a fair election, in which someone other than Mubarak would run for the position, since they feel he has accumulated too much power over the course of his very long term. (Kanalley, C.)

The current Egyptian Revolution began on the 25th of January, 2011, and although the demonstrations and marches have been mostly non-violent, there were incidents in which physical violence occurred, causing 6,000 to be injured while 846 individuals have died during violent outbursts. These predominately non-violent demonstrations have occurred in Egyptian cities such as Cairo and Alexandria. After many weeks of ongoing demonstrations from the Egyptian populace, President Mubarak finally resigned from office. This led to nationwide celebrations in the streets, but the needs of the people have not been truly fulfilled. (Kanalley, C.)

After Hosni’s resignation, the military of Egypt decided to rule the nation for six months until a new president can be appointed. The people of Egypt are still unhappy with the final result, as the nation’s military is still ruling the nation long after they originally said they would appoint a successor to Mubarak. Several prominent figures from Mubarak’s old political regime are still in office. The general populace feels that with these individuals still in office, the ideals of Mubarak are still in effect, and thus the government has not truly followed through with the desires of their revolting populace. Currently in Egypt, the people of the nation are still awaiting a proper successor to Mubarak, and they would like those individuals from his old regime to be removed from their positions as well. This is where the nation of Egypt currently stands at the present day. (Kanalley, C.)

Works Cited

Kanalley, C. “Egypt revolution 2011: A complete guide to the unrest.” Huffington Post. 30 Jan. 2011. Web. 5 Nov. 2011.

Arabic Women in Faqir's Pillars of Salt and the Contemporary World, By Victoria Malcervelli

Born in Amman, Jordan, and educated in both Jordan and England, Fadia Faqir brings her Eastern culture to the Western world, keeping focus on women’s issues. She defines the struggle of women through events, symbolism, and storytelling in her novel Pillars of Salt. Violence against women keeps women under control, and she identifies “crimes of honor” against Arab women, not men. She also makes political statements about the harms against women as the result of British colonization and the cultural patriarchy of Jordan. Faqir, however, does not depict her female characters as helpless victims, but, rather, she demonstrates womanhood in nature, giving strength and empowerment to the gender. Similar to the novel, which takes place in the 1950’s, women today face hardships, abuse, and discrimination in the Arab world, but, like Maha, women prove their power and strength every day. Through political protest, women demanded to be recognized as equals, and although the riots in the Middle East are not about women’s rights, a strong feminine presence motivates gender equality.

Using modern and cultural methods of storytelling, the novel gives a strong feminist message concerning two Arab women, Maha and Um Saab. Even the title of the novel has cultural roots. Lot's wife, a character in the Book of Genesis, turns into a pillar of salt for failing to heed the orders of the angels of deliverance while fleeing from the city of Sodom. The story of Lot takes place in the Middle East, as many of the stories in the Bible, Torah, and Quran do. Another example of Faquir’s incorporation of her culture into the novel is seen through the Story Teller who represents a male voice of the culture and is extremely antifeminist. Finally, the strongest statement of male dominance is in the fact that the two women, Maha and Um Saab, are incarcerated into a mental hospital because of the men in their lives.

One of the cultural statements made in her novel addresses the inequality of gender roles. Women are expected to be submissive housewives and mothers. If they cannot give birth, they are considered useless. As some of Harb’s friends jokingly refer to Maha’s potential infertility, “If you bought an English rifle and found out that it did not shoot, what would you do? You would throw it away and buy another” (Faqir 70). Many of the gender roles practiced in the Middle East derive from religious tests. Restriction of woman’s activities which force their roles to serve only the family and domestic matters, for instance, can be traced to the Qur’anic verse that addresses the Prophet’s wives who “abide quietly in your home” (33:33 qtd. in Osman). The Middle Eastern culture intertwines its cultural, everyday customs, to rigidly follow with values and customs found in the Quran.

There are many differences between the women of Pillars of Salt and those in the Middle East today. Because the novel is set in a small village, it hardly depicts the exponential change and development that cities experience. In the streets of many major cities such as Cairo, Egypt, women have more freedom and respect than what is depicted in the small village in Pillars of Salt, where mentalities of a close neighbor could be heavily weighted or even crippling. Great strides in the right direction have had a foundation laid by “Habib Bourguiba, the founding father of the modern Tunisian state, who outlawed polygamy, granted women equal divorce rights and legalized abortion” (“Now Is the Time”). Statistics of female literacy and education, however, indicate the massive oppression women still face in many nations.

Literacy and feminine equality varies from nation to nation. Being a woman in Yemen or a woman in Jordan are extremely different experiences from one another. In Tunisia, for example, literacy “is now over 70%, though only 27% of the labour force is female. Women make up nearly two-thirds of university students, compared with two-fifths in Egypt” (“Now Is the Time”). Life is drastically different in Tunisia than in Egypt. Even though Egypt's women may work outside the home, go to school and university for free, vote, and run in all elections, “women's literacy stands at just 58%, and only 23% of workers are women” (“Now Is the Time”).

Protest can serve as a liberating, but equally terrifying means of equality. The revolutions occurring today are fought by the citizens who want change and general reform may take place, but women are seizing these events to reform gender bias. Many dangers steer away revolutionists, and “In Egypt and Tunisia women are both hopeful and fearful about what the Arab revolutions might mean for them” (“Now Is The Time”). The protests today are not for women, but for all rights. Women protestors are harshly prosecuted. On the ninth of March, the army broke up a demonstration in Tahrir Square when they arrested scores of demonstrators, including at least 18 women. While held, they were beaten, threatened with charges of prostitution, and they were forced to submit to “virginity checks.” At first, the army denied that the checks had taken place. In May, however, a senior general admitted it had been done so that the women would not later claim that they had been raped by soldiers. ‘“The girls who were detained were not like your daughter or mine,’ he explained, ‘these were girls who had camped out in tents with male protesters in Tahrir Square’” (“Now is the Time”). It is clear that many harbor resentment against the female protestors, as if taking the same stand in the streets, fighting the same fight as men, is a disgrace.

Overall, women have a huge battle to fight in the Middle East, but as it stands, they are striving to earn at least one thing: respect. With dedication and perseverance, women authors and women protestors, alongside male supporters, will achieve the goal of equality.

Works Cited
Faqir, Fadia. Pillars of Salt. Canada: Interlink Books, 2007. Print.

Now Is The Time." Economist 400.8755 (2011): 29-32. Academic Search Complete. Web. 6 Nov. 2011.

Historical Influence of Arab Women, by Kyle Medernach

When reading Fadia Faqir’s Pillars of Salt, it is particularly important to understand a timeline of influential Arab women. Looking back to the past, present, and future circumstances faced and endured by women of Middle Eastern descent might provide insight to the fictitious happenings within Pillars of Salt. Gender plays an essential role in the daily lives of Arab society. Perhaps a good majority of this male-dominated lifestyle can be attributed to widespread verses from the Qur’an. The historical context of notable Arab women is also significant to the setting, characters, and plot in Faqir’s Pillars of Salt.

Set in the 1920s, Pillars of Salt exposes the unfair treatment and unfulfilled uprising of Arab women. Maha, the main character, can be frequently empathized with; she catches her brother, Daffash, raping two women, is beaten senseless and toothless, and is ultimately banished from her Transjordan society. Around the same time Maha must fight to defend her honor and land, Aswa Zahawi, founder of the Women’s Rising Group, helped promote education and employment rights for women. Then, in 1923, three Egyptian women unplaced their veils in public; they demanded equality, the right to vote, and law reformations (Global Connections 1-2).

Middle Eastern nations soon faced the challenges posed by women such as Zahawi and the three Egyptians. This revolution-hungry attitude is present in Faqir’s main character. Maha displays the opinions similar to the real-life influential Arab women. These opinions were given the right to be heard when Turkey granted women full voting rights in 1934. Over the next thirty years, nine Middle Eastern countries approved of women’s full rights to vote (Anatolia 1-2). The pattern illustrated by several Arab nations can be described as a domino effect because women clearly made a positive impact on the decision-making in their respective governments.

In 1965, Islamic activist and founder of the Muslim Women’s Association, Zaynab al-Ghazali, was imprisoned shortly in Egypt. Similarly, Maha is basically imprisoned in present-day Jordan for her rebelling. Women were gaining momentum in the gender battle during the 1960s, and Israel’s Golda Meir made magnanimous strides in government when she served as prime minister from 1969 until 1974. Government was finally becoming gender-diverse, and political and religious figures were angered in 1972 by Nawal El Saadawi’s book, Women and Sex (Global Connections 2-3). Her ideas and opinions were presented much like the mentalities of Faqir’s female characters.

Arab women were gaining rights in government, causing debate in literacy, and soon were allowed to attend Saudi Arabia’s King Saud University. In 1975, women could finally earn degrees by attending King Saud University as full-time students. Women characters in Pillars of Salt speak clearly, but are severely uneducated about foreign concepts and practices. It wasn’t until some fifty years later that Arab women could learn beside men. More recently, from 1996 until 2002, the infamous Taliban ruthlessly restricted women’s freedoms and role in society. During this same timeframe, Iranian women were admitted permission to wear head scarves farther back on their heads by President Mohammed Khatami in 1997, Turkish men are held liable and arrested for domestic abuse in 1998, Lieutenant Dr. Elina Weismann becomes the first Arab women to see combat as an Israeli physician in 1999, and female attendance in Arab schools reaches a record high in 2002 (Global Connections 3-7).

History can provide a timeline of influential Arab women’s actions. Many of the motivations behind these female figures are shared by Faqir’s female characters in Pillars of Salt. Maha, Um Saad, and even Esra are fictitious replicas of Arab women living in the early 20th century. The attitudes heard in their dialogue mirrors the real-life attitudes of women such as Zahawi, al-Ghazali, Meir, Saadawi, Weismann, and obviously Faqir. Unfair treatment sparked these women to act, resulting in their respective accomplishments and historical significances. Perhaps more significant than their individual accomplishments was the rebellion they led. Since 1934, a total of 18 Arab nations now allow women to vote (Anatolia 1-2). In the setting of Pillars of Salt, barely any female voices were considered authority. This difference enables readers to gain and appreciate Faqir’s perspectives.


Works Cited
Faqir, Fadia. Pillars of Salt. London: Quartet, 1996. Print.

"Global Connections . Timeline | PBS." PBS: Public Broadcasting Service. Web. 02 Dec. 2011. .
Web.

"History Timeline of Jordan - Anatolia Tours and Travel." Private & Group Escorted Tours to Turkey, Morocco, Jordan & Egypt. Tour Packages, Italy Guided Tours, Morocco Travel, Turkey Tours, Egypt Travel, Greece & Dubai Hotels. Web. 02 Dec. 2011. .

Egypt Under Colonial Rule Prior to WWI, byt Ashlea Bartlett

The British indirectly ruled in Egypt long before the British invasion in 1883. The British took control of the commerce in Cairo, even before the invasion of Britain. Britain believed it was very important that the country be organized by dependable people that were not Egyptian. The early invasion bought about no physical change to Egypt until Lord Cromer took absolute rule in Cairo (Halvorson 430).

A vast amount of literature was written during this period in Egypt, especially anti-colonialism poetry written by contemporary Arab poets, Muhammad Mahdi al-Jawahiri, Mahmud Sami al-Barudi, and Hafiz Ibrahim. These poems, with their vivid content, show Egyptian citizens emotional response to the political changes Egypt was going through. Although these poets use a strong content, they write their poems through stunning imagery and charming rhythm(Altoma). Muhammad Mahdi al-Jawahiri, was so renowned that Google dedicated an entire day to him.

In 1883, Lord Cromer, the first British agent to take control over Egypt, is responsible for the obtaining absolute rule in Egypt through torment and manipulation. Lord Cromer, a foul manner, nasty ruler, held control over Egypt for twenty four years. Cromer’s idea was to make Egypt a gentleman’s country: the British way. In addition to maintaining control in Egypt, he also controlled the Nile, stopping Italians and French from using it for trade(Welch). Cromer eventually left Egypt and left Sir Eldon Gorst in control of Cairo.

Sir Eldon Gorst, one of the most influential British rulers in Egypt, during the colonial rule. Sir Eldon built four tramways in Cairo and a fifth tramway that ran from Giza to the pyramids. Not only did Sir Eldon bring about public transportation to Egypt, he also developed department stores and shopping districts; however, it is not clear if the stores were to help the British who were enjoying their time in Egypt (Tour Egypt).

After Sir Eldon, Lord Kitchener took charge of Egypt, creating a legislative system that resembled the parliamentary system in England. Lord Kitchener was aware of the threat that if Egyptians were to find out that they could rule in a way other than a parliament system there would be a huge revolt, so he enlisted Egyptian soldiers to fight for what the British believed in. Unfortunately for the British, World War I was this revolution (Tour Egypt).




Works Cited
Altoma, Salih J. "In memoriam: Muhammad Mahdi al-Jawahiri (1900?-1997)." Arab Studies Quarterly [ASQ] 19.4 (1997): V+. Literature Resource Center. Web. 25 Oct. 2011.
Halvorson, Dan. “Prestige, Prudence and Public Opinion in the 1882 British Occupation of Egypt.” Australian Journal of Politics & History 56.3 (2010): 423-440. Historical Abstracts. EBSCO. Web. 22 Oct. 2011.
Tour Egypt. British Occupation Period, 2011. Web. 22 Oct. 2011. Web.
Welch, William M. “No Country for a Gentleman: British Rule in Egypt, 1883-1907.” No Country for a Gentleman: British Rule in Egypt, 1883-1907. 1. 1988. Historical Abstracts. EBSCO. Web. 22 Oct. 2011.

Egypt Under Colonial Rule During WWI, by Katie Caldwell

As World War I progressed, New Zealand, Australian, and British troops began to enter and inhabit Cairo. Arabs demanded national liberation and rebelled against the Turks. According to the article “British Occupation Period” from Tour Egypt, “European Cairo was a madhouse because of the British and their self-indulgences.” Egypt began to change immensely because of the troops (“British Occupation Period”).
British Flag
http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gb-hist.html


Australian Flag
http://www.anbg.gov.au/oz/flag.html






New Zealand Flag
http://www.mch.govt.nz/nz-identity-heritage/flags

In Cairo, prices on goods increased rapidly while British soldiers indulged in all of Cairo’s goods. Not only did Cairo suffer greatly from the troops’ presence, but the people surrounding the city did as well; they endured many hardships such as undernourishment, poverty, and destitution. Interestingly, in 1918, there were more deaths than births from living this horrific lifestyle (“British Occupation Period”).

Although Cairo suffered many negative changes, not all changes hindered its economic financial situation. In 1914, the Australian troops spent an astronomical amount of money in the city every day. The troops began to progressively lose enthusiasm in patrolling Cairo. The troops were too busy entertaining themselves that they began to lose focus on the real reason of why they are there in the first place. The citizens of Cairo had noticed this transformation and ultimately demanded a more self-governing country (“British Occupation Period”).

Martial law was initiated in Cairo in 1916. Citizens were penalized by military courts. England now treated Egypt like an adversary. Because of this dispute, British troops promoted kidnapping peasants in 1917 so they could work in their Palestinian labor groups. Many were sent to Mesopotamia, France, and Syria (“British Occupation Period”).

Mesopotamia France
http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/m/mesopotamian.html http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3842.htm


Syria
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm






Work Cited
"British Occupation Period." Tour Egypt. N.p., 21 Aug 2011.Web. 14 Nov 2011.
.
Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs: Background Note: France. 2011. Map. U.S.
Department of State: Diplomacy in Action. Web. 14 Nov 2011.
.
Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs: Background Note: Syria. 2011. Map. U.S.
Department of State: Diplomacy in Action. Web. 14 Nov 2011.
.
Croft, Jim. The Australian Flag. N.d. Flag. Australian Government: Department of the
Environment and Water Resources, Australia .Web. 14 Nov 2011.
.
Delahunt, Michael. Mesopotamian Art. 2010. Map. Artlex.com. Web. 14 Nov 2011.
.
Flags. 2010. Flag. Manatū Taonga: Ministry for Culture & Heritage, New Zealand .Web. 14
Nov 2011. .
Moss, Clay. Modern Flag (adopted 1801). 2006. Flag. United Kingdom - History of the Flag:
Part 1. Web. 14 Nov 2011. .

Egypt Under Colonial Rule After WWI, by Eddie Goodenough

When World War I ended, the Egyptian people found hope in United States President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points speech, which addressed how the areas affected by the war should function following its conclusion. In response to this, Saad Zaghloul, an Egyptian politician and revolutionary, led a peaceful delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1918 and demanded Egypt be given independence. The British response to this delegation, however, was to exile Zaghloul, who was also the leader of the Wafd Party, an organized group formed for the sole purpose of Egyptian independence. As a result of this, the Egyptian people went into an uproar; Cairo became a revolutionary city overnight and in the following days many other cities followed suit, which crippled the country’s transportation system. This inability to move throughout Egypt efficiently hindered British resistance.
Saad Zaghloul

This uprising led to the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, which ended in 1922 with Britain granting sovereignty to Egypt and implementing Fuad I as king. Despite this agreement, the British still refused to fully abandon occupancy of the country and still remained in complete control of the Suez Canal, an important and strategically important area. Accepting these terms, the Wafd Party drafted the new Egyptian constitution in 1923, basing it off of Britain’s own parliamentary system, and Saad Zaghloul was elected Prime Minister in 1924.
Fuad I

In the time following this, Britain offered little help to Egypt, despite still having a major presence in its territory. This lasted until the beginning of World War II, when Britain began using Egypt as a supply hub for the war effort, employing Egyptians and greatly boosting the country’s economy. Finally, as World War II was coming to its conclusion, British troops completely removed themselves from the Egyptian countryside, maintaining presence solely in the Suez Canal area. Finally, on July 23rd, 1952, the Free Officers Movement, a group of high ranking Egyptian military officials, led a coup which ended with the complete removal of all British soldiers throughout Egypt, including the Suez Canal. July 23rd is celebrated to this day as the Egyptian Independence Day.
Egyptian Protesters